Noah's Ark

The Government is steering the ship. It has instruments of control to direct the economy in a particular direction. The most important instruments include public spending and taxation decisions to alter the course of the economy. Economic indicators tell us how well a policy is working. Budgetary instruments of control are used to vary the amount of public spending to increase or depress economic activity and to target its spending to try to influence groups or areas.

Earlier administrations have denied that government could control the economy in this way. The most they could do, they said, was create the right free market conditions and competition would do the rest. Governments still do try to steer the economy. It tries to control inflation as all post-war governments have done. The recent recession and government financial support for the banks show that free markets are far from perfect and government intervention is occasionally necessary (Jones et al. 1998).

At the centre of the machine are the Treasury and the Bank of England. There is considerable argument about the extent of their power but they have an important ongoing role in daily strategy and tactics in fiscal and monetary policy (Jones et al. 1998). The Chancellor of the Exchequer has initiated several policy actions in recent months to help cope with the credit crisis, stabilize the economy, control inflation and control unemployment. Macroeconomic objectives also include long-term sustainable economic growth. The Governor of the Bank of England has also used its policy tools to carry out its functions and achieve its objectives (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997).

Recessions begin when investment slows down. If investment is maintained at a modest rate, capital stock grows slowly and the law of diminishing returns works in reverse. Real business cycle theory takes changes in investment demand and demand for labour into consideration. People can decide when to work and how much but must use the real interest rate. If the quantity of money changes, aggregate demand changes. The 'dismal science' says that however much investment and technological change occurs real wage rates are always being pushed back down to subsistence levels. It is the theory on which classical population growth economics is based. The classical growth theory is likewise based on the view that population growth is determined by income levels. Modern growth theories turn the classical theory on its head.

According to the modern growth theory founded by Joseph Schumpeter new technologies are the source of economic progress. In capitalist society it creates turmoil, a process of 'creative destruction' creating new businesses and destroying currently profitable businesses. Rising incomes slow population growth because they increase the opportunity cost of having children. Growth occurs because the technological advancement and productivity growth prospects are unlimited.

Miscalculations of inflation may give an inaccurate measurement of real GDP growth. They probably give a fairly accurate estimation of the phase of the business cycle. Other indicators, such as jobs, correlate. Real GDP figures can overstate the situation because in a recession household production and leisure time are countercyclical and tend to increase. They also tend to understate to long-term growth rate. Impulses will come from future expectations of sales and profits on one hand and an increase in money supply on the other. An unanticipated change in aggregate demand due to fiscal or monetary policy may also bring a change in real GDP (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997). The banks must get things moving again. Economic policy is made up in the process of execution and relies on private bodies like banks. The economy cannot work without banks circulating notes and coins, processing cheques and acting as financial intermediaries to businesses (Jones et al, 1998).

Am I My Brother's Guardian? - Risks In International Marketing

The globalisation process has meant radical changes all over the world. Global competition affects everything everywhere. For many people the world has got a lot smaller in terms of geographical and cultural differences. Many businesses have been able to expand their market coverage. Companies are able to take advantage of new opportunities in selling and buying abroad (Kotler, 1999).

International firms may have to co-ordinate their operations functions across borders. The various departments of a company may take place in several countries. Those who want to 'Buy British' may have to carry out some research to find out where the parts, components, manufacturing and assembly of their desired items were carried out. British products are often made abroad and 'foreign' products made here (Kotler, 1999).

Global marketing means that more companies than ever are in strategic alliances with other companies from abroad to some degree. The need for technological and marketing resources is forcing companies to look for partners. Customers expectations are raised by these developments. 'More for less' is offered by many companies and customers are offered quality products at discount prices (Kotler, 1999).

At the same time consumers expect businesses to take responsibility for the social and economic impacts of their activities. Pressure groups are placing strict demands on companies regarding air, water and soil pollution, rain forests, global warming and endangered species (Kotler, 1999). Ethical requirements differ from one place to another. Business practices in some countries may create a moral dilemma for businesses with social and environmental policies (Brassington and Petitt, 2000).

Customers are more internationally oriented and suppliers have to follow. In the service industry it may be better to stay close to the customer and locate appropriately. Culture is important and understanding the conventions and etiquette of the local culture is vital (Brassington and Petitt, 2000).

The economic risks are also greater than before. International marketing involves exposure to exchange rate risks. Changing currency from home to host or some other agreed currency and then buying the item may involve a change in the exchange rate. The ERM reduces most of the uncertainty for members. A strong currency can put potential traders off. A weak pound favours exporters. High foreign country debt and inflation may be problematic. In poor countries the problem might be inability to pay. Entry requirements to host countries relate to a variety of working practices and marketing mix adaptation costs will also have to be considered (Jeannet and Hennessey, 1998, Kotler, 1999).

Businesses also face risk due to changes in the political climate affecting the way partners interact. A company could lose all of its investment in another country because of the influence of special interest groups and the prevailing political philosophy. A sudden change of power may lead to a hostile political climate. It is advisable to do a political risk assessment where there is any doubt about a potentially volatile political climate. The assessment can be integrated into risk reduction strategies to help with business continuity in the markets entered, to leave a market or not enter and to analyse genuine market opportunities (Jeannet and Hennessey, 1998).

Competitive behaviour and product liability regulations can be complex. International and supranational regulations can be contradictory or enforced differently. Complaints about unfair competition can be taken to the host country, the regional bloc, like the EU, or global bodies like the WTO.

The broadening of marketing boundaries brought about by globalisation and the complete changes in Eastern Europe has produced trends of trade liberalisation, deregulation and privatisation (Jeannet and Hennessey, 1998). It will bring opportunities and competition. Systems and structures can be developed to exploit the opportunties that arise.

Speaking And Listening

Communication is a process of creating meaning between two persons. Communicator 1 - Sender/Receiver - Encoding/Decoding - Speaking, and Communicator 2 - Receiver/Sender - Decoding/Encoding - Listening. Communcator 1's half of the cycle is different from Communicator 2's half because of human uniqueness. Emphasis is given to the receiver as listener but the same applies to any situation (Tubbs and Moss, 1994).

Marketing communications are intentional, transactional and symbolic. Words can be denotative, meaning the same to everyone or connotative, meaning something unique to the individual. It is a mistake to think that others think and believe the same as we do. Creating shared meaning involves researching and applying many elements. Certain elements of grammar such as simile, metaphor and allegory may be used to create meaning.

Meaning is to do with the processing of information into concepts that are relevant to the person's experience and useful knowledge. The most effective messages affect the consumer's thought and belief patterns. Perception synthesises information into a world-view so in a sense it is a construct. It is important to position a product right in the consumer's world view. A certain amount of information is filtered out so the world view is incomplete. The remaining information is used to create a cognitive map. Imagination and experience fill in the gaps.

A company's marketing communications depend on credibility. The message will be successful if it is believed. Credibility can depend on the person's perception of the sender. Celebrity endorsement can create a believable link between the product and the celebrity. Meaning is transfered to the product. If the personality of the product matches the personality of the celebrity synergies can be created. People can share in something they like. The likeability of a marketing communication can be an important indicator of product success. Successful communications often contain humour and warmth. Actors in commercials can demonstrate how a product is used, can improve lifestyles or fulfil aspirations. Modelling seems to work but there is debate as to how (Pickton and Broderick, 2001).

Effective communications are those that elicit the intended response from the person/s to whom the message was sent. The drowning man waving wildly to be rescued only to see people to wave back is the last thing a marketer wants. Marketing communications must be understood, influence attitudes, improve relationships and be acted on (Tubbs and Moss, 1994).

Brand Names

Brand names add to brand equity that quality that encompasses loyalty, name awareness, image, perceived quality and associations. It can be difficult to measure the equity of a brand name. Name selection is a crucial part of the marketing process as a good name can add significantly to a product's success. Many big companies have developed formal name selection processes. Once decided on, a brand name or a trade name should be protected. Trade marks, patents and intellectual property rights protection is advisable.

Some brand names and products become household names and are referred to as if the brand name was the name of the product. The biro for a ball-point pen, the hoover for a vacuum cleaner, tupperware, polaroid and wellingtons are good examples of substituting a brand or trade name for a product. Lino, yo-yo, trampoline, escalator, shredded wheat and nylon are others. They are now names that any seller can use (Kotler, 1999).

Due to the local nature of advertising it is best to carry out research into names, products, interpretations, cultural attitudes and so on. It is especially true in international markets. It is often advisable to get professionals to do it for you. The best brand names work in different languages. Numerous products have run into language problems in translation, French breakfast cereal 'Plopsies' and Slovakian pasta 'Kuk and Fuk' are two examples. The 'Nova', from GM, was not a good name for a car in Spain because 'no va' means 'does not go'. The French soft drink called 'Scchhit' wouldn't sell well in many English speaking countries. Misinterpretations of campaigns and products are possible because of differences in cultural attitudes.

Marketing campaigns must be adapted to different cultures and languages when necessary. They contain different thinking patterns and display different buying behaviour. The message should be tailored to the audience. The product should also be socially and culturally appropriate. These can be very difficult tasks (Jeannet and Hennessey, 1998).

It's A Matter Of Choice

Down the ages we have made use of our intellect to make cultural progress. It is not restricted to the empirical sciences but extends to realities known only to the mind. It finds its perfection in wisdom. Wisdom leads us along the right path. It is a matter of choice.

Conscience is the place where there is always a voice calling to us to do good and avoid evil. Individually and collectively, when a correct conscience prevails people can turn aside from subjective choices to the guidance of the objective moral order. We may sometimes however act in ignorance. It is only in freedom that man can choose good. People are right to prize freedom. True freedom is a great sign. Dignity demands that we decide freely and consciously. Dignity comes from choosing what is good and securing the means to that end (Gaudium et spes, 1965).

We must have a well-formed conscience (Catechism of the Catholic Church, CCC 1783, 1994). Man cannot decide for himself what is good and evil or know them. The gift of conscience enables us to reflect on the moral order. God is the first and sovereign source of the moral order. Religionists are always under pressure to reject God (Dominum et vivificantem, 1986). The people who think that the association of human activity and religion endangers our autonomy are obviously wrong to people who believe in God. The controversy can occasionally lead to the mistaken belief that there is an opposition between faith and science. We should be proud to integrate our human, scientific and technical enterprises with religious and philosophical values and co-operate with others working towards the same objectives (Gaudium et spes, 1965).

Cattle, Sheep And Pigs

The laws and principles discovered and developed by Mendel have been applied to animal breeding. The most controversial example in recent years of the kind of perversion of Mendel's Laws we occasionally come across being Dolly the Sheep. Cloning is not a new practice. In plant breeding clones have been developed and used for decades in developing new strains of cereals and other plants. It does not go without question. There are ethical questions about the biotechnology that is applied to plants and animals and humans.

The ethical debates about livestock farming and developments in husbandry have been going on for years. Animal welfare is a great concern for good farmers and animal lovers. Housing concerns have been expressed about farm livestock not least in the case of veal crates. Keeping animals in cramped and uncomfortable conditions is cruel and it is bad husbandry. It can be very stressful for the animals involved. It lowers the quality of whatever life they have and lowers their market value. Only the best husbandry practices are recommended for keeping farm livestock.

Some of the ethical questions argued about in agriculture have eventually come up in wider society in other contexts. Some agricultural practices are passed on to practitioners in other branches of science and the principles applied to humans. The most well known are things like artificial insemination, embryonic transfer, surrogacy and cloning. There are many more. It is a serious debate about the future of farming and the future of society as a whole as what is practiced in one is occassionally practiced in the other. Agriculture sometimes seems like a laboratory for experiments in social engineering. Monkeys and mice, cattle, sheep and pigs.

Risky Business

The creative process may appear to be no more than a Eureka moment or a flash of inspiration but actually can take a long time and for very good reasons. In the world of plant breeding for example the process from idea to commercialisation can take many years of work and collaboration for all involved. There are many things to consider and get right before commercialisation can go ahead. Corporate social responsibility and business ethics are both very important areas than must be satisfied before new products can go on commercial sale.

The new product idea generation process may simply be an extension of an existing product line. The screening of ideas or varieties 1,2,3...plants must first undergo criteria rating setting out the specific features of each potential new product. New product ideas must be protected whever possible so that there is no plagiarism or important developments or sensitive information falling into the wrong hands. Mendel's plant breeding discoveries were developed by Hugo de Vries but in a totally different context and with different intentions and they cannot be described as Mendelian or of the school of Mendel.

Concept testing and positioning regarding the potential market will give data concerning whether the customer definitely would buy or definitely would not buy the potential product. Significant investment may have to be made to make the actual physical product from the ideas. Prototypes and tests for efficiency, quality and consistency will need to be carried out using laboratory tests, taste trials and so on for food products which could possibly lead to further disagreements. The length of the development phase can be very unpredictable, possibly many years, and involve many areas of expertise. It is the case in areas of ethical debate where arguments and feelings are very strong from a number of different quarters. Very sensitive or controversial products such as genetically modified foods make take years to develop and still fail to meet the requirements of stringent testing and the pressure groups totally opposed to biotechnological developments along those lines. In the fashion industry it can be as short as a few weeks.

Test marketing takes place in realistic marketing settings. It may also take long time again many years and be very expensive. If large investments are involved there is usually lots of test marketing in real environments, to finish fine tuning, and give an opportunity to change the mix variables and, especially in markets like agriculture and plant breeding, assess in the field things that are difficult to assess on paper. Trade shows, standard and controlled test markets are ideal places to present new product ideas. Test marketing gives all the information necessary to decide on whether the product is ready to launch from what is left of the original ideas.

New product development can be a risky business. It is a well established fact that most new consumer products fail but the market is dynamic and constantly changing. New products give a competitive edge. Existing products cannot be relied on to last forever. They all have a life cycle and eventually go into decline. New products are vital to survival but simply introducing new products is not enough. Good management is important to ensure new products come on stream to satisfy market demand (Kotler, 1999, Brassington and Pettitt, 2000).

You Can't Keep A Good Man Down

Credibility may be one of the most important elements in communication but it does not always have the sustained influence in terms of persuasion the speaker might desire. High credibility sources have more change effect than low credibility sources. Brands can generate meanings in the minds of target customers. Sponsors are impressed by value associations. Maximum change comes from high credibility sources showing things like leniency. Differences do diminish over time. A high credibility source can lose ground to a low credibility source. The sleeper effect can be important in the process of attitude change. There is a tendency for listeners in an audience to dissociate source from message. The message may be remembered regardless of source. Message effectiveness is determined by appropriateness to audience. Audience research into values and lifestyles can pay rewards to the speaker. There are commercially available segmentation classifications.

Unaccustomed As I Am....

The art of public speaking involves presentation and demonstration. It is one of the best ways of enhancing the corporate image and presenting customer benefits. A whole range of promotional supports can be used to help get the message across from booklets and flip charts to slides, videos and samples. The presentation should try to tell the product story and how the product is going to make or save money.

One of the most important things is source credibility. A person or company has to be believable. There are different dimensions of credibility. Different audiences will go for different things but generally a few things are more effective than others. The speaker should, if possible, appear to be authoritative. An intelligent, informed and competent speaker will be more persuasive and believable than someone who doesn't know the product. A likeable and reassuring character is often better. People who are well known to the audience before the speech and have a reputation in the subject or product will be easier to believe than others. An image created as a result of speech however may have more impact and generate more word-of-mouth effects.

The mode of delivery of a speech or talk can affect the outcomes of a presentation. Some people like to read from a manuscript or notes or cards. A certain amount of preparation will therefore be required. Preparation is always advisable anyway. Impromptu, memorised or extemporaneous speeches are great when delivered by charismatic and capable people but can lead to disaster if delivered by someone who simply has not prepared properly. It may occasionally depend on the type of presentation.

A good speaker or presenter will research the audience. A purpose oriented demographic analysis will give the relevant data and this will differ from one audience and place to another. A lot depends on listener persuadability. Some people are open or susceptible to persuasion, others are more closed. It may pay to find out a bit more about the audience before setting expectations too high.

The message is usually what the presentation is all about in business and marketing. Presentations cover so many categories. The subject should be topical and interesting. Materials for supporting the message and promoting the subject or product can be very important. The speaker should support the speech with examples, statistics, quotations and analogies. One of the aims will be attitude change. It could be immediate or it could take a long time. Visual aids can be helpful to illustrate meanings difficult to convey with only words. Use of language can be very effective. Vividness and use of metaphor can make a great impression. Aristotle considered the use of metaphor to be the mark of genius. A speaker shouldn't take too long to get a meaning across. Meanings can sometimes get lost in too many words. Humour and satire are popular ways to win over an audience if in good taste. Occasionally an appeal to fear may be necessary.

It can be worthwhile considering how much change to attempt. Different people have different latitudes of acceptance. There is always the danger of a backlash, boomerang or contrast effect. You cant change everything overnight, but you must try.

There's Gold In Tham Thar Heads

Education has been made to follow the principle that choices made by the government are designed to affect the production of goods and services in the community. The primary purpose of education in recent years is the production of a 'competent and educationally adaptable workforce'. Education is therefore seen as an economic facet. But economic policy has constantly changing boundaries. Once, education and arguments about things like the curriculum were a purely an educational matter. There was a growing belief that the quality of education and its effects on the quality of the workforce and in turn its effects on the economy has prompted an increase in the economic arguments about education. It has damaged the idea that what is taught in schools should be decided by educators and those concerned with education.

Where you were educated can make a difference. It is reflected in politics and economics. Cabinet members have tended to be from public school and Oxbridge educational backgrounds. It is true of both Conservative and Labour Governments. The mistakenly held view that Thatcher, Major and Heath's 'meritocratic' Cabinets were mainly from grammar school backgrounds was not true. In fact a higher percentage of ministers were from public school backgrounds than previously and a higher percentage of Oxbridge graduates but a declining number of aristocrats. Major's 'classless society' Cabinet contained over 70% Oxbridge and private school. Labour Cabinets are not so simple. There has been an increase in Oxbridge educated members and ex-public school. There is however still a higher percentage of Labour Cabinet ministers from grammar school and working class backgrounds.

Similar patterns can be seen in the House of Commons. The majority of Conservative MPs are traditionally from public school and Oxbridge backgrounds. The percentage has declined from 83% in 1945 to 75% public school and 48% Oxbridge of 68% university educated in 1974. A change occured in 1979 at just over half, and since with a decline in the numbers of public school and Oxbridge educated members and again in 1987 and 1992. In contrast, the Labour party has seen an increase in the number of university educated members. In 1945, 34% were university educated, 1970, just over half the PLP, 1983 54% and by 1992, 61% with most being from universities other than Oxford or Cambridge. Oxbridge educated Labour MPs have increased only from 15% in 1945 to 16% in 1992. The Conservatives are becoming less aristocratic and increasingly a business controlled party and the Labour Party is increasingly middle class with no experience of manual work or business (Jones, Gray, Kavanagh, Moran, Norton and Seldon, 1998).

In workplaces all over the country, there are large differences in earnings based on the degree of education and training. The earning of both men and women are greater the more education they have had. There is also a relationship between age and earnings. Men earn most between the ages of 40-49 and women between 30-39. Age in men is also correlated with experience and training up to middle age and with women as they take time off to have a family. College or university education increases earnings up to 5-10% pa after inflation. A university education is a worthy investment it would appear. Education, it has to said, if it is the main source of skills differentials is not the only source of earnings differentials. A picture of competitive labour markets can be used to explain it (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997). Human capital includes all the education, skills and life experiences of an individual. Management may discuss employees' potential as some may be worth investing in. The intergration of task and personal learning can further career growth and effectiveness (Bratton and Gold, 1999).

The external benfits of education are often overlooked by individuals and firms. It can lead to the creation of new knowledge which can be copied by others. People balance the private marginal costs and private marginal benfits of education when making their choices. Efficient allocation of resources for education provision is best done by public choice and government policies. Subsidies, below cost provision and patents can provide a good stock of knowledge (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997). Lifelong Learning is part of a process intended to fulfil a vision of a 'learning nation' and the social and political nature of learning. Education is seen as an important part of the socialisation process. The Government plans for a University For Life, like the Open University, and learning accounts with a state contribution (Mullins, 1999).

Streaming is a feature of British schools that groups together children of similar overall ability. It is also called banding or setting. It is criticised for promoting ascribed status, reinforcing class differences and structuring friendships and cultures. It is defended by saying that children of similar ability develop better when schooled together. A rival claim is that classes should be of mixed ability so that competition can take place. It is also said to be a self-fulfilling prophecy. The 1980 Act extended market economics in education and the 1988 introduced the National Curriculum.

Credentialism is allocation according to paper qualifications which does not necessarily lead to improved performance. The high demand for jobs leads to competition among applicants. The pursuit of credentials becomes an end in itself and came to be termed the 'Diploma Disease' (Dore, 1976; see also 'The Great Training Robbery' by Berg, 1970). Jobs are awarded to people on the basis of the level of qualification rather than the form or content of the course. The level is of primary significance. The critics suggest that the thesis of credentialism undervalues the intrinsic value of extra education. The screening hypothesis also says that the highest qualifications and type of institution are more important than the content of education. According to the hypothesis, the level of rewards are correlated with the level of qualification. It raises the question of whether these jobs were specialised or professional, skilled or unskilled labour.

A declining rate of staying on in education in the 1990s led to the effort to create a 'flexible and skilled workforce' to help businesses compete in world markets on the basis of quality and speed. Successive governments had the idea of creating a market in training and development where supply and demand determine the training provided. An important element in the infrastructure of the plan are a framework of vocational qualifications to national standards. These competence-based qualifications have been criticised over the meaning of competence and the preference for competence over knowledge and understanding and whether they are more effective than other approaches. They are a required component of some apprenticeship schemes (Bratton and Gold, 1999).

Occupation is the single most important influence on social structure. It is the key determinant of material rewards and status. Class structure closely corresponds to occupational structure. Occupaton is central to political life in the way people vote and to the life of the individual. Education is often the key to a decent occupation for millions of people. Often it is not. There are millions of people doing jobs they do not like and are not properly qualified to do. They do jobs that they did not originally train to do. A job for life is a thing of the past. The flexible workforce is what employers want which means that people who lose a job must have flexible skills they can apply to another one. The power of business means that they can sometimes get what they want.

The questions it raises include whether education should be provided by employers or educators and whether education and jobs should be allocated according to class or merit.

Tea And Sympathy

British industrial relations are traditionally voluntarist. They centre on collective bargaining and the voluntary regulation of the employment relationship. Workers' representatives usually negotiate pay and conditions on behalf of staff though employee involvement can vary greatly. There are usually two or more parties with different opinions of what the outcome should be and they are most often management and employees often represented by a trade union. Research into negotiations has tended to focus on the negotiations themselves rather than the contexts. During negotiations negotiators arrive at key decision points at which they must decide what to do. Behaviours are usually competitive or collaborative. One is distributive in that one side's gain is the others side's loss, whereas integrative bargaining tries to increase the overall rewards for all. The most effective negotiators show some concern for the other parties as well as their own (Arnold, Cooper and Robertson, 1998).

Choice of management style affects strategies and practices. Management strategies might be inclusive or exclusive of unions. Other dimensions such as status and contract or high and low strategic integration and individualism/collectivism can be added to give matrices of different styles. Collaborative arrangements appear to perform well but the political climate can affect the choice of styles (McLoughlin and Gourlay, 1992 and Hyman, 1997 in Bratton and Gold, 1999). Trade unions have several responses to these developments: opposition, passive co-operation, a bargaining approach and partnership (Bratton and Gold, 1999). The newer HRM models are inconsistent with traditional industrial relations models involving trade unions.

There are more options than conceding or not conceding. It is as well to remember that it may be necessary to work with the other parties again in the future so maintaining a good relationship and listening to them may be important. Willingness to compromise shows concern for the other party. Negotiations are often necessary in disputes over pay and conditions not least over working time, rest periods, breaks and holidays. The voluntarist tradition has been circumscribed in recent years by government legislation and European Directives. The negotiations over the Working Time Directive carried out in the European Parliament, for example, required several amendments and derogations had to be negotiated for many different sectoral interests.

The Working Time Directive of the European Union sets out the hours of work for employees within the European Union. Council Directive 93/104/EC, of 23 November 1993, amended by Directive 2000/34/EC of 22 June 2000 of the European Parliament and of the Council is concerned with hours of work, rest periods, breaks and paid holidays and night work in respect of health and safety. In particular it sets down a minimum of 11 hours rest in every 24 hours, a day off every seven days, a break every six hours as determined by collective or social agreements or legislation, four weeks annual paid holiday, a maximum 48 hour week including overtime. Also night work periods should be no more than eight hours in any 24 hour period with free health checks available. There is a general principle of adapting work to man especially where the work is monotonous with quick repetition. Derogations are allowed for continuity of service or production, such as in hospitals, agriculture or press and information services.

A satisfactory outcome to negotiations is obviously preferable. Failing to arrive at a settlement is usually unacceptable to all. Coming away with an unsatisfactory one-sided arrangement is also unacceptable and it may be necessary for the negotiator to persuade the rest of the team that what they came away with is acceptable (Arnold, Cooper and Robertson, 1998).

There is no single strategy that can be adopted for negotiations over workers pay and conditions. The traditional voluntarist method is being eroded by legislation from the government and Europe and also by changes in trade unions structures, bargaining power and relationship with New Labour. The hard HRM model threatens further union decline leaving the possibility that the soft HRM model may be a way to find mutually beneficial arrangments in future (Bratton and Gold, 1999). After all, we all want our tea breaks and our holidays.

Women At Work

Social change has eliminated a lot of what was called 'women's work'. Most of domestic service has gone and married women are taking paid employment in large numbers. Women's work is disproportionately concentrated in the service sector and manufacturing. Half of the population are women but more than half of working women are in low pay and low status jobs. A high proportion are cleaners in universities, but a low proportion are teachers in them. A high proportion are in casual and part-time jobs though an increasing number are taking managerial and high status jobs more than ever before.

There is a close connection between changes in the jobs market and changes in perceptions both of and by women. Self confidence and self-consciousness beyond the labour market are reflected in dissatisfaction with long-established inequalities. The role of breadwinner has changed in some respects in some families along with changes in the culture and structures of family life. Increases in employment among women has been accompanied by a decline in traditional manual labour jobs (Jones, Gray, Kavanagh, Moran, Norton and Seldon, 1998).

Prejudice and discrimination can be seen in differentials that include pay. Explanations for wage differentials can be given some of which are valid. Job type and human capital differences, specialisation and lastly, discrimination. The model is in equilibrium but that doesn't make it right, desirable or inevitable (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997). Since 1975, equal pay legislation has recognised that people doing the same job deserve equal pay and the 'equality clause' had been inserted into employment contracts since 1970. Further developments have taken place to bring it into line with Europe (Bratton and Gold, 1999).

Working practices that do not recognise equality may have an unintended adverse effect on women. There may be some gender bias. It is a critical area of research. The different approaches being used give different perspectives for the analysis of individual behaviour.

Sometimes paternalistic attitudes mean managers 'think it best' that women should or shouldn't do this or that part of the job or role. Even though it may be meant well it could be interpreted as a lack of opportunities vis a vis their male counterparts. Changes in management style and structures may be good for women. Managers should adopt a positive approach and acknowledge that patterns of work change and consider what might be the best working practices for their workforce (Mullins, 1999).

When women want to return to the labour market after years away they may feel a lack of confidence and out-of-date. Opportunities should be provided for them to be brought up to date. Professional association and trade union provision should include courses for ex-employees for women who have temporarily left the workforce to raise a family. It may also be in her best interests for a prospective mother to minimise the interruption to a highly qualified job to keep up to date and in touch with developments in the world of work while bringing up the family.

Many women need some sense of security in their job. The arguments for a reasonable length of maternity leave with a right to return to work and financial security during the leave period are generally considered sensible. Most of the countries in the European Union have arrangements including guarantees against dismissal during pregnancy, paid maternity leave, guarantee of right to return to work after a prearranged period (up to two or three years) but different countries have different arrangements. Very few companies provide for paternity leave (Arnold, Cooper and Robertson, 1998).

Women have got a lot to offer the world of work and provision should be made so that they can offer their best while maintaining a healthy work-life balance.