Economics analysts try to understand the economic world and then devise policies to try to improve it. Economic policy makers try to predict the outcome of alternative economic policies and evaluate them on a scale of better to worse by stating policy objectives and analysing policy outcomes according to political sentiments. An objective and scientific evaluation can be made of economic policy objectives such as efficiency, stability, growth and equity. Economic growth, in terms of incomes and productivity, is one of the main objectives of economic policy. Even in times of recession, economic performance is measured as a decrease in real GDP, or negative economic growth.
Growth transforms poor societies into rich ones but it has costs. The costs of growth are that in doing so it uses up exhaustible natural resources and might damage the environment. Two key factors that influence growth are technological advancement and capital accumulation. Devoting resources to one thing means they are not being devoted to anything else. There is always an opportunity cost. If resources are being used to discover new technologies and new forms of capital, they cannot be used to increase consumption goods and services or on current environmental concerns.
Growth can be measured in terms of the increase in real GDP. The periodic but irregular movement of economic activity we call the business cycle measures fluctuations of real GDP around potential GDP, the real GDP that could be produced if resources were fully employed. The economy has officially entered a recession and will eventually reach a 'trough' or turning point at which it will enter another phase of expansion. It is considered severe at the moment but is not expected to be as severe as a depression. Recessions are unpredictable as are animal spirits. One of the government's problems is closing the recessionary gap (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997).
The current recession could be said to have global proportions. Globalisation means that process by which the production and marketing of products is becoming more integrated and interdependent (Harrison, Dalkiran and Elsey, 2000). As a result of this global economic interdependence the effects of the 'credit crisis' are being felt all over the world. The problem for the international institutions is that there is no model in finance, economics or international business theory that can explain or predict capital flows. The international institutions themselves may be out of date for the problems of the global environment. GATT has been replaced by WTO. The IMF was designed for a system that no longer exists. Internationally agreed policies may be required to curb the trend toward greater deregulation and international financial anarchy (Dawes, 1995).
Growth and population are often related. Rapid economic growth may be linked to rapid population growth. Real GDP per person is a measure of real GDP divided by population and can be used to compare growth rates across countries and over time. There may be similar features in productivity growth figures, business cycles and long-term trends in potential GDP in countries like the major OECD countries.
Long-term economic growth means expanded consumption possibilities, a better environment, pensions, welfare and more support for the poor and disadvantaged. When the rate slows the opposite effects and losses are felt. There is a relationship between the long-term growth rate and welfare and usually a trade-off between spending on welfare and on the productive sectors of the economy that generate growth. One of the biggest problems of macroeconomics is finding a balance of resource allocation between the two rival claims (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997).
The scarcity of resources means that a frontier exists between what is attainable and unattainable in terms of production possibilities. Inward shifts along the frontier reduce our production possibilities and outward shifts expand the possibilities and resources are decreased and increased. Firms reduce production and prices for short-run equilibrium to eventually restore long-run equilibrium or they wouldn't be able to sell their products and customers buy what they need. Consumers may in fact be worried about their incomes and cut spending which would in turn leads to job losses, falling investment and a deepening of the recession. Consumer efficiency occurs when utility cannot be increased by reallocating their budgets. They should budget as wisely as ever for utility, preferences, indifference, substitutes and prices they can afford.
We can only continue to analyse the economic world, gain a greater understanding of how it works and devise institutions to that might improve economic performance. One thing is pretty sure, all the questions and answers will arise from scarcity (Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997).
Friday, 30 January 2009
Thursday, 29 January 2009
New Opportunities To Meet Demands
Economic policy is still the most important and contentious area of British politics. The arguments about who controls the economy and the causes of economic failures are central to current political divisions.
There are a number of distinguishing features to the policy-making process. Continuity is dominant, change is only gradual because most government commitments are entered into in the past and the process is incremental. There are also many factors that are beyond government control. These distinguishing features mean that there is actually very little freedom for the government to make choices. Some marginal influence can be exercised especially if in government for a long time and the influences can be quite substantial. The most important being party ideology and electoral considerations such as increasing public spending as an election approaches.
In the constitutional democracy of the UK, the control of policy is firstly in people-elected representatives. More critical accounts look at other influences in parts of the civil service and powerful organised groups in the wider economy. There is a theory that the dominant 'Treasury elite' control policy-making because they are well placed, Treasury concerns dominate and because the Treasury is allied to the financial interests of the City of London and its international interests. Arguments against the theory are that the Treasury usually only advises, its long history of lost battles and because no single Treasury view exists.
The 'veto group' theory emphasises the interconnectedness of the making and implementation of policy. As Britain is a market economy the co-operation of the institutions that make up a market economy are necessary for policy to work effectively. There is some debate as to which groups have the power of veto over government policy.
Business, it is often stressed, is a powerful enough group to be a veto group. The rules of the market place give businesses capacity to help or obstruct policies. Many of the long term aims of government policy such as jobs, investment and productivity, all depend on a market economy and decisions taken by business leaders. All economic policy is at the mercy of business and profits play a large part in the decision making process. If an important decision-maker is not convinced that a policy is right, the 'veto' may be used by witholding support for the policy. The ownership of capital is key to understanding the conduct of economic policy in Britain. Another key element is labour. Labour, especially in the form of unions, is another important 'veto' group perhaps more important than capital. It is in a position to prevent the introduction and implementation of policy and has the power of the threat of strike action to 'veto' policy.
The market place is the chief mechanism for producing goods and services in a capitalist economy. Failure to produce goods and services in sufficient amounts is market failure. There may be too much of one thing and not enough of another. Market failure is one of the most important areas for state intervention. Health and education are the two most obvious cases where government intervention is necessary to prevent gaps appearing in service provision. Welfare provision is also seen as a burden on the economy. 'Thatcherism' has been judged by its critics to have been merely deindustrialisation and a shift away from consensual policy style to the deliberate strategy of self-interest of the rich and enterprising for increasing their wealth while endangering peace and harmony.
Recent economic indicators show that Britain is officially in recession. They show that the idea of unregulated markets is in serious trouble. Shares in some of the big banks have plummeted. Employment prospects are predicted to worsen as demand dries up. Output and orders are falling in manufacturing, there has been a downturn in the service sector, shoppers have been spending less, profitability and prospects in the financial sector have also been falling. Some large industrial business have temporarily shutdown and some have introduced shorter working times. Unemployment is up. Interest rates are at an all time low of 1.5. The future picture is pretty gloomy and some are agreeing that it could be up to 40 years before things get back to 'normal'. If this recession is like other recent recessions it will not be nearly that long or anything like it. The opposition parties are making of it what they can mainly in blaming the government. The 'Buy British' campaign will work if people take up they idea.
There is some resentment against governments and banks around the world for not passing on the billions given them by governments, for giving such large sums to those perceived to be the cause of the problem while neglecting what are considered worthier causes.
There are opportunties for people. Good ideas work under any economic conditions. Financial innovations may be particularly helpful. The government is doing what it can to help but jobs need to be created as they are being in the retail sector. The downturn has global dimensions. Globalisation usually takes economic forms, a degree of political globalisation might help with the current problems (Jones, Gray, Kavanagh, Moran, Norton and Seldon, 1998; Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997).
There are a number of distinguishing features to the policy-making process. Continuity is dominant, change is only gradual because most government commitments are entered into in the past and the process is incremental. There are also many factors that are beyond government control. These distinguishing features mean that there is actually very little freedom for the government to make choices. Some marginal influence can be exercised especially if in government for a long time and the influences can be quite substantial. The most important being party ideology and electoral considerations such as increasing public spending as an election approaches.
In the constitutional democracy of the UK, the control of policy is firstly in people-elected representatives. More critical accounts look at other influences in parts of the civil service and powerful organised groups in the wider economy. There is a theory that the dominant 'Treasury elite' control policy-making because they are well placed, Treasury concerns dominate and because the Treasury is allied to the financial interests of the City of London and its international interests. Arguments against the theory are that the Treasury usually only advises, its long history of lost battles and because no single Treasury view exists.
The 'veto group' theory emphasises the interconnectedness of the making and implementation of policy. As Britain is a market economy the co-operation of the institutions that make up a market economy are necessary for policy to work effectively. There is some debate as to which groups have the power of veto over government policy.
Business, it is often stressed, is a powerful enough group to be a veto group. The rules of the market place give businesses capacity to help or obstruct policies. Many of the long term aims of government policy such as jobs, investment and productivity, all depend on a market economy and decisions taken by business leaders. All economic policy is at the mercy of business and profits play a large part in the decision making process. If an important decision-maker is not convinced that a policy is right, the 'veto' may be used by witholding support for the policy. The ownership of capital is key to understanding the conduct of economic policy in Britain. Another key element is labour. Labour, especially in the form of unions, is another important 'veto' group perhaps more important than capital. It is in a position to prevent the introduction and implementation of policy and has the power of the threat of strike action to 'veto' policy.
The market place is the chief mechanism for producing goods and services in a capitalist economy. Failure to produce goods and services in sufficient amounts is market failure. There may be too much of one thing and not enough of another. Market failure is one of the most important areas for state intervention. Health and education are the two most obvious cases where government intervention is necessary to prevent gaps appearing in service provision. Welfare provision is also seen as a burden on the economy. 'Thatcherism' has been judged by its critics to have been merely deindustrialisation and a shift away from consensual policy style to the deliberate strategy of self-interest of the rich and enterprising for increasing their wealth while endangering peace and harmony.
Recent economic indicators show that Britain is officially in recession. They show that the idea of unregulated markets is in serious trouble. Shares in some of the big banks have plummeted. Employment prospects are predicted to worsen as demand dries up. Output and orders are falling in manufacturing, there has been a downturn in the service sector, shoppers have been spending less, profitability and prospects in the financial sector have also been falling. Some large industrial business have temporarily shutdown and some have introduced shorter working times. Unemployment is up. Interest rates are at an all time low of 1.5. The future picture is pretty gloomy and some are agreeing that it could be up to 40 years before things get back to 'normal'. If this recession is like other recent recessions it will not be nearly that long or anything like it. The opposition parties are making of it what they can mainly in blaming the government. The 'Buy British' campaign will work if people take up they idea.
There is some resentment against governments and banks around the world for not passing on the billions given them by governments, for giving such large sums to those perceived to be the cause of the problem while neglecting what are considered worthier causes.
There are opportunties for people. Good ideas work under any economic conditions. Financial innovations may be particularly helpful. The government is doing what it can to help but jobs need to be created as they are being in the retail sector. The downturn has global dimensions. Globalisation usually takes economic forms, a degree of political globalisation might help with the current problems (Jones, Gray, Kavanagh, Moran, Norton and Seldon, 1998; Parkin, Powell and Matthews, 1997).
Wednesday, 28 January 2009
Winning Hearts And Minds
The changes that have taken place in advertising over recent years has been amazing. Television, radio, the Internet and other new media have added so many different dimensions to advertising that it bears little resemblance to the paper notices and lineage of the past. That is not to say that the adverts and advertisers of earlier days were not good. They still inspire marketers today but the new techniques and media have added so much and so many different kinds to the panoply of practitioners in a short space of time that it could be described as kind of revolution.
The media have increased but that is no guarantee that the offering will be successful and bring in lots of new customers. The message has to be right. You have to be satisfied that the message you put out is the one you want the consumer to get. The response to the right message will tell you if the market is there for your product. Consumers are only human and if the marketing mix isn't quite right it will be reflected in sales. Each element of the marketing, advertising and promotion mixes is crucially important. Consumers respond to stimuli and behave accordingly. The number of things to be borne in mind when designing a campaign is staggering. The marketer has to know the product well enough to be able to sell it and the learning and memory abilities of the public. Consumer motivation will affect buying decisions.
We all have our values, core values taught by socialisation agents and value systems ranking things according to relative importance will ultimately have a lot to do with if we buy or not. Values are also incorporated into the means-end chain model which links product attributes according to increasing levels of abstraction to our terminal values (Solomon, Bamossy and Askegaard, 2002).
On the abstract level, many different product forms compete for our attention in any given category. Consumers must make a choice using their own decision rules. Marketing campaigns that are well integrated can do much to educate the public about your product and the choice they have to make. Consumers also have their own internal information system. Heuristic rules of thumb help a consumer to shorten information processing. Consumers develop assumptions about companies and products. These market beliefs can act as mental shortcuts whether they are accurate or not (Solomon et al., 2002).
Then there's the competition. The marketing concept says that competitive advantage is gained by satisfying target customers' needs better than the competition. First comes analysis then strategy development. Product category must be the first thing to consider. Companies in the same industry compete for customers in the market. Once a company enters a strategic group the members of that group become its main competitors. The more a company knows about its competitors' products, prices, marketing and sales plans, distribution coverage and so on the more competitive it will be (Kotler, 1999). Research and development and finance are other key strategies of which to be aware. Competitors can be of any number of classifications. If a competitor comes up with a more attractive rival product you may lose customers. Market orientation is a method that combines efforts to focus on both consumers and competition. You may want to win the hearts and minds of consumers.
Political consumers can use their buying patterns in ways that reflect their values in the same sort of way green consumers once did (Solomon et al, 2002). They are not the only people to say that businesses have too much political power. Pressures from the political and regulatory environment may also affect consumer decisions. They determine and maintain the framework within which business must be done (Brassington and Pettitt, 2000). Knowledge of local practices may be crucial in achieving sales (Kotler, 1999).
Income, social class and age will be factors that affect purchase decisions. Ability and willingness to buy depends on demand for products. Demand for necessities is stable over time. Many other products are frequently used as status symbols and often reflect the amount of discretionary income and conspicuous consumption or parody display that tries to avoid status (Solomon et al., 2002). Engel's Law suggests that such products may always find a market (Kotler, 1999). Money worries and anxieties about self-image and reference groups will have their effects and marketers should remember that if the price is not right consumers will look for substitutes.
Once gained, as many customers as possible should be retained. Retaining customers is more cost-effective than gaining new ones (Brassington and Pettitt, 2000). Customer retention will depend on how well needs have been satisfied. The focus was once on transactions now customer satisfaction also demands relationship marketing techniques like financial and social benefits and structural ties to turn customers into clients (Kotler, 1999).
The media have increased but that is no guarantee that the offering will be successful and bring in lots of new customers. The message has to be right. You have to be satisfied that the message you put out is the one you want the consumer to get. The response to the right message will tell you if the market is there for your product. Consumers are only human and if the marketing mix isn't quite right it will be reflected in sales. Each element of the marketing, advertising and promotion mixes is crucially important. Consumers respond to stimuli and behave accordingly. The number of things to be borne in mind when designing a campaign is staggering. The marketer has to know the product well enough to be able to sell it and the learning and memory abilities of the public. Consumer motivation will affect buying decisions.
We all have our values, core values taught by socialisation agents and value systems ranking things according to relative importance will ultimately have a lot to do with if we buy or not. Values are also incorporated into the means-end chain model which links product attributes according to increasing levels of abstraction to our terminal values (Solomon, Bamossy and Askegaard, 2002).
On the abstract level, many different product forms compete for our attention in any given category. Consumers must make a choice using their own decision rules. Marketing campaigns that are well integrated can do much to educate the public about your product and the choice they have to make. Consumers also have their own internal information system. Heuristic rules of thumb help a consumer to shorten information processing. Consumers develop assumptions about companies and products. These market beliefs can act as mental shortcuts whether they are accurate or not (Solomon et al., 2002).
Then there's the competition. The marketing concept says that competitive advantage is gained by satisfying target customers' needs better than the competition. First comes analysis then strategy development. Product category must be the first thing to consider. Companies in the same industry compete for customers in the market. Once a company enters a strategic group the members of that group become its main competitors. The more a company knows about its competitors' products, prices, marketing and sales plans, distribution coverage and so on the more competitive it will be (Kotler, 1999). Research and development and finance are other key strategies of which to be aware. Competitors can be of any number of classifications. If a competitor comes up with a more attractive rival product you may lose customers. Market orientation is a method that combines efforts to focus on both consumers and competition. You may want to win the hearts and minds of consumers.
Political consumers can use their buying patterns in ways that reflect their values in the same sort of way green consumers once did (Solomon et al, 2002). They are not the only people to say that businesses have too much political power. Pressures from the political and regulatory environment may also affect consumer decisions. They determine and maintain the framework within which business must be done (Brassington and Pettitt, 2000). Knowledge of local practices may be crucial in achieving sales (Kotler, 1999).
Income, social class and age will be factors that affect purchase decisions. Ability and willingness to buy depends on demand for products. Demand for necessities is stable over time. Many other products are frequently used as status symbols and often reflect the amount of discretionary income and conspicuous consumption or parody display that tries to avoid status (Solomon et al., 2002). Engel's Law suggests that such products may always find a market (Kotler, 1999). Money worries and anxieties about self-image and reference groups will have their effects and marketers should remember that if the price is not right consumers will look for substitutes.
Once gained, as many customers as possible should be retained. Retaining customers is more cost-effective than gaining new ones (Brassington and Pettitt, 2000). Customer retention will depend on how well needs have been satisfied. The focus was once on transactions now customer satisfaction also demands relationship marketing techniques like financial and social benefits and structural ties to turn customers into clients (Kotler, 1999).
Tuesday, 27 January 2009
In The Name Of The Father
When it comes to strategy formulation there will be a relationship between the type of enterprise and the people involved in the formulation process. The process depends partly on the type of enterprise.
In SMEs strategy as well as ownership and control is in the hands of the owner. Partnerships and private companies will be dominated by interpersonal relationships usually partners, old partners or family members, public companies with a separation of ownership and management traditionally call on professional managers to formulate strategy, but increasingly shareholders are becoming involved as a result of the corporate governance movement. Members all have a democratic say in co-operatives and commonwealths but there is an increasing trend toward the building society and mutual company model with professional managers and elected management boards. In state controlled, public sector and not-for-profit enterprises, the strategy formulation and decision-making is highly politicised, and is carried out by elected representatives, appointed officers, management boards, government, employee or stakeholder representatives, professsional managers or administrators (Morden, 1999).
The founder or family members may have considerable influence on the strategy formulation process. The founder shapes the initial perspective. As Goldsmith and Clutterbuck (1985) argued family members provide continuity. They grow up in the business and know it intimately and want to maintain the value of the family's most prized asset. They take a longer view. In Mediterranean Europe, they can develop into long lasting dynasties. They can make the enterprise look more attractive and able to offer a wider range of benefits and development opportunities to prospective employees (Morden, 1999).
Family business do tend to suffer from a number of disadvantages. There is no guarantee that family members will be qualified or competent business people. The Chinese Family Business describe it as 'from shirtsleeves back to shirtsleeves' in three generations. The search for a successor may reveal a lack of interest among members of the family and a lack of motivation. There may also be rivalry and infighting for control. Separating business from the dynamics of the family stew may become problematic. A concentration of power and unchecked authority could lead to serious mistakes being made. Some of these features of family businesses suggest that occasionally professional managers should be brought in from outside to make the necessary changes. The process of professionalisation could involve a lengthy period of accomodation and uncertainty (Morden, 1996, 1999).
The main idea behind bringing in professionals and a change management process is the continued existence and success of the enterprise. Anyone who can bring continued success to a business should be made welcome.
In SMEs strategy as well as ownership and control is in the hands of the owner. Partnerships and private companies will be dominated by interpersonal relationships usually partners, old partners or family members, public companies with a separation of ownership and management traditionally call on professional managers to formulate strategy, but increasingly shareholders are becoming involved as a result of the corporate governance movement. Members all have a democratic say in co-operatives and commonwealths but there is an increasing trend toward the building society and mutual company model with professional managers and elected management boards. In state controlled, public sector and not-for-profit enterprises, the strategy formulation and decision-making is highly politicised, and is carried out by elected representatives, appointed officers, management boards, government, employee or stakeholder representatives, professsional managers or administrators (Morden, 1999).
The founder or family members may have considerable influence on the strategy formulation process. The founder shapes the initial perspective. As Goldsmith and Clutterbuck (1985) argued family members provide continuity. They grow up in the business and know it intimately and want to maintain the value of the family's most prized asset. They take a longer view. In Mediterranean Europe, they can develop into long lasting dynasties. They can make the enterprise look more attractive and able to offer a wider range of benefits and development opportunities to prospective employees (Morden, 1999).
Family business do tend to suffer from a number of disadvantages. There is no guarantee that family members will be qualified or competent business people. The Chinese Family Business describe it as 'from shirtsleeves back to shirtsleeves' in three generations. The search for a successor may reveal a lack of interest among members of the family and a lack of motivation. There may also be rivalry and infighting for control. Separating business from the dynamics of the family stew may become problematic. A concentration of power and unchecked authority could lead to serious mistakes being made. Some of these features of family businesses suggest that occasionally professional managers should be brought in from outside to make the necessary changes. The process of professionalisation could involve a lengthy period of accomodation and uncertainty (Morden, 1996, 1999).
The main idea behind bringing in professionals and a change management process is the continued existence and success of the enterprise. Anyone who can bring continued success to a business should be made welcome.
Monday, 26 January 2009
The Labourers Are Few
Those appointed as leaders of new branches, divisions, off-site/external departments should be such as can become bona fide members of the higher level management usually answerable to the board. They should be trusted, tried and tested people with expertise and experience. They should also be the kind of person that can rise above internal rivalries and conflicts and able to accept responsibility and manage public relations. They should be good representatives of the company and understand and be able to translate the mission of the enterprise.
Recruiters should try to attract the right kind of person for the job. Externally, there is the available labour in the market, there may be suitable candidates but sometimes there isn't, and there are the company's internal resources and promotion up or transfer across structures. The job analysis will give a picture of the ideal person and the selection process should discover who the most suitable person is. They should also be able to command the acceptance and respect of all concerned.
Recruiters should try to attract the right kind of person for the job. Externally, there is the available labour in the market, there may be suitable candidates but sometimes there isn't, and there are the company's internal resources and promotion up or transfer across structures. The job analysis will give a picture of the ideal person and the selection process should discover who the most suitable person is. They should also be able to command the acceptance and respect of all concerned.
Friday, 23 January 2009
Pray For Christian Unity
Christian unity is a practice based on theology rather than the theology itself. There seem to be theological grounds for hope in practical ecumenism. The followers of Christ differ in mind and go their separate ways but there is a call to unity. The disunity in the Church is an obvious contradiction of the will of Christ and many people of all kinds feel impelled by grace to come together to pray for the unity for which Christ prayed to be faithful to that call. Dialogue based on shared convictions has helped to clear up misunderstandings and share insights bringing participants to recognise revelations they had overlooked or to which they hadn't given sufficient attention. It has also set the participants on convergent rather than divergent theological courses (Butler, 1981).
Differences also arose in the early Church. The Apostle Paul was called on to heal the divisions in the church of Corinth, there were controversies over liturgy and apostasy, Arianism, Gnosticism, Pelagianism, Marcion and Mani (Comby, 1985). Christians were divided by the Churches of the East and West in 1054 but reconciliation was attempted on two major occasions at Lyons in 1274 and Florence 1493-45. Since then the dialogue has continued (Neuner and Dupuis, 1988). Christians were again divided by the schisms and reforms of the 16th century in Europe. The people of today however who are members of these separated churches cannot be held responsible for what happened in that separation.
The Second Vatical Council (VII) in the document on Ecumenism, called for total involvement in ecumenism. It involves a complete change of attitude from a unity based on juridical principles to one based on an ecclesiology of communion in the mystery of Christ. The change of attitude can be made more real by an inner conversion without which it will not be a genuine ecumenism. In a gesture of profound significance VII called for that continual reformation of which it has always had need and recognised that in the past people on both sides were at fault (Thornhill, 1988). As a result, Christian unity is no longer sought as inviting other Christians to join the Church but as integration into the one Church willed by Christ (Neuner and Dupuis, 1988). Catholics and Anglicans have held discussions on Christian unity on a number of occasions in the ARCIC forum and a Week of Prayer for Christian Unity is held every year from 18 to 25 January.
Differences also arose in the early Church. The Apostle Paul was called on to heal the divisions in the church of Corinth, there were controversies over liturgy and apostasy, Arianism, Gnosticism, Pelagianism, Marcion and Mani (Comby, 1985). Christians were divided by the Churches of the East and West in 1054 but reconciliation was attempted on two major occasions at Lyons in 1274 and Florence 1493-45. Since then the dialogue has continued (Neuner and Dupuis, 1988). Christians were again divided by the schisms and reforms of the 16th century in Europe. The people of today however who are members of these separated churches cannot be held responsible for what happened in that separation.
The Second Vatical Council (VII) in the document on Ecumenism, called for total involvement in ecumenism. It involves a complete change of attitude from a unity based on juridical principles to one based on an ecclesiology of communion in the mystery of Christ. The change of attitude can be made more real by an inner conversion without which it will not be a genuine ecumenism. In a gesture of profound significance VII called for that continual reformation of which it has always had need and recognised that in the past people on both sides were at fault (Thornhill, 1988). As a result, Christian unity is no longer sought as inviting other Christians to join the Church but as integration into the one Church willed by Christ (Neuner and Dupuis, 1988). Catholics and Anglicans have held discussions on Christian unity on a number of occasions in the ARCIC forum and a Week of Prayer for Christian Unity is held every year from 18 to 25 January.
Thursday, 22 January 2009
The Perfect Manager
What makes the perfect manager? Is there such a thing? Is such a thing possible? Where does the perfect manager work? How much does he/she get paid? What does perfect mean? What does manager mean? How subjective is it?
The perfect manager will be able to give insights and inputs into strategy and will have tactical awareness and ability. Good interpersonal skills will be required for interacting with people at different levels of the organisation from the shop floor to the board room. Analytical skills for planning, implementation and control of marketing cannot be overlooked (Kotler, 1999).
Leadership style could be autocratic or democratic. Authority and freedom are both important but how much and where? Contingency style might suit best (Mullins, 1999). Management competencies and skills like communication skills, encoding and decoding written and verbal communication, delegating and negotiating, co-ordination of different roles and departments for a congruent outcome must be included in the analysis. Making sure of good information systems will help make the right decisions. Faultless financial analysis and budgeting, planning and control of accounting plans should keep the cash flowing. Organisation skills and structures and decisions on whether to have them entrepreneurial or bureaucratic are so important. Time is the manager's most precious resource. Good time management is vital to get things done. Boundary management is necessary to contain and differentiate the business from other open systems (Morden, 1996). The perfect manager, to be complete, must have the ability to manage diversity and manage change without upsetting people. Someone who knows the family well, an old friend.
It must be someone who will not give up the manager's right to manage. Someone with a management style for performance, productivity and work behaviour applying Theory X or Y or Z or the Golden Rule and being a people company (Mullins, 1999). Management must show more concern for the environment and social responsibility (Morden, 1996). It must involve the choice and application of business, marketing and communications ethics. The management, human resources and marketing philosophies of a perfect manager must make a difference to work performance, morale and relationships (Mullins, 1999).
A manager works for a firm and must make a contribution to accomplish the mission, aims and objectives of the business. The perfect manager must be whatever best suits particular requirements of the employer or situation. So perhaps it comes down to recruitment and selection and whoever best fits the job description and person specification. Given a competent HR manager. We all have different values and opinions, so maybe there is no such thing.
The perfect manager will be able to give insights and inputs into strategy and will have tactical awareness and ability. Good interpersonal skills will be required for interacting with people at different levels of the organisation from the shop floor to the board room. Analytical skills for planning, implementation and control of marketing cannot be overlooked (Kotler, 1999).
Leadership style could be autocratic or democratic. Authority and freedom are both important but how much and where? Contingency style might suit best (Mullins, 1999). Management competencies and skills like communication skills, encoding and decoding written and verbal communication, delegating and negotiating, co-ordination of different roles and departments for a congruent outcome must be included in the analysis. Making sure of good information systems will help make the right decisions. Faultless financial analysis and budgeting, planning and control of accounting plans should keep the cash flowing. Organisation skills and structures and decisions on whether to have them entrepreneurial or bureaucratic are so important. Time is the manager's most precious resource. Good time management is vital to get things done. Boundary management is necessary to contain and differentiate the business from other open systems (Morden, 1996). The perfect manager, to be complete, must have the ability to manage diversity and manage change without upsetting people. Someone who knows the family well, an old friend.
It must be someone who will not give up the manager's right to manage. Someone with a management style for performance, productivity and work behaviour applying Theory X or Y or Z or the Golden Rule and being a people company (Mullins, 1999). Management must show more concern for the environment and social responsibility (Morden, 1996). It must involve the choice and application of business, marketing and communications ethics. The management, human resources and marketing philosophies of a perfect manager must make a difference to work performance, morale and relationships (Mullins, 1999).
A manager works for a firm and must make a contribution to accomplish the mission, aims and objectives of the business. The perfect manager must be whatever best suits particular requirements of the employer or situation. So perhaps it comes down to recruitment and selection and whoever best fits the job description and person specification. Given a competent HR manager. We all have different values and opinions, so maybe there is no such thing.
Wednesday, 21 January 2009
Halo And Prophecy Management
Early rejection has been the rule for many people rather than the exception. People who have the same skill set can perform well or badly. Our expectations can influence the impressions we make on others. Those who expect to be accepted and perceive others as friendly are often accepted and popular. The same principle applies with people displaying the opposite factors. A person's psychological set, their expectations or predisposition, helps to confirm a self-fulfilling prophecy (Tubbs and Moss, 1994).
We also tend to expect certain behaviours to go together. How we select and organize information about people creates a private theory of personality often on the basis of very limited information. Filtering and selection of information creates our own personal constructs in comprehending and exploring people and events (Fincham and Rhodes, 1999).
First impressions are very important. Our perception of people can be made on the single impression of an unfavourable or undesirable trait and may be taken to mean that the person has other undesirable traits, shutting out other relevant information (Mullins, 1999). If we aren't careful a bad impression can be vary hard to change. The halo/horns effects are as undesirable as primacy and recency effects. The importance of first impressions and our tendencies to make false assumptions and predictions about behaviour are such that the distortion can lead to the Peter Principle in promotion situations (Kakabadse, Ludlow and Vinnicombe, 1987). Treating people according to first impressions and what you want them to become can create self-fulfilling prophecies. The problem is the positive kind are not as infallible as the negative kind.
The 'target person' can of course respond. We can use tactics to present a certain image of ourselves to the outside world (Arnold, Cooper and Anderson, 1998). Impression management, as it is called, can take place on four fronts: superior, subordinate, specialist and lower participants. Understanding a social situation helps us to perform well in it. Social activity is dynamic and creative and statistics cannot make much of it. We may be unaware of the considerable cognitive achievement automatic social responses represent. Personality from this perspective of impression management is seen as form of social intelligence. Persona describes the social face. Personal fronts are continually monitored in self-presentational activity by making comparisons between the given and the given off. 360 feedback is useful for those with less well marked self-monitoring. Self-awareness differentiates high and low performing individuals. Appearance and manner are also symbolic. We tend to accept another self-definition. Breaking that rule can lead to serious disruption of social interaction and damage another person's integrity (Fincham and Rhodes, 1999).
We cannot be all things to all people. Our perceptions of what other people think of us are a result of self-perception as much as anything else. People may be more influenced by what we say about ourselves than what anyone else might say about us. The credibility and motives of the others may be responsible for it but the potentially most biased source of information may be the most credible. It is therefore necessary to be able to discern accurately the behaviour of the target (Arnold, Cooper and Anderson, 1998).
We also tend to expect certain behaviours to go together. How we select and organize information about people creates a private theory of personality often on the basis of very limited information. Filtering and selection of information creates our own personal constructs in comprehending and exploring people and events (Fincham and Rhodes, 1999).
First impressions are very important. Our perception of people can be made on the single impression of an unfavourable or undesirable trait and may be taken to mean that the person has other undesirable traits, shutting out other relevant information (Mullins, 1999). If we aren't careful a bad impression can be vary hard to change. The halo/horns effects are as undesirable as primacy and recency effects. The importance of first impressions and our tendencies to make false assumptions and predictions about behaviour are such that the distortion can lead to the Peter Principle in promotion situations (Kakabadse, Ludlow and Vinnicombe, 1987). Treating people according to first impressions and what you want them to become can create self-fulfilling prophecies. The problem is the positive kind are not as infallible as the negative kind.
The 'target person' can of course respond. We can use tactics to present a certain image of ourselves to the outside world (Arnold, Cooper and Anderson, 1998). Impression management, as it is called, can take place on four fronts: superior, subordinate, specialist and lower participants. Understanding a social situation helps us to perform well in it. Social activity is dynamic and creative and statistics cannot make much of it. We may be unaware of the considerable cognitive achievement automatic social responses represent. Personality from this perspective of impression management is seen as form of social intelligence. Persona describes the social face. Personal fronts are continually monitored in self-presentational activity by making comparisons between the given and the given off. 360 feedback is useful for those with less well marked self-monitoring. Self-awareness differentiates high and low performing individuals. Appearance and manner are also symbolic. We tend to accept another self-definition. Breaking that rule can lead to serious disruption of social interaction and damage another person's integrity (Fincham and Rhodes, 1999).
We cannot be all things to all people. Our perceptions of what other people think of us are a result of self-perception as much as anything else. People may be more influenced by what we say about ourselves than what anyone else might say about us. The credibility and motives of the others may be responsible for it but the potentially most biased source of information may be the most credible. It is therefore necessary to be able to discern accurately the behaviour of the target (Arnold, Cooper and Anderson, 1998).
Tuesday, 20 January 2009
Get It In Writing
The changing demands made on businesses and some HRM practices applied in recent years as a result, such as delayering and downsizing, have left many people feeling their 'psychological contract' has been broken. Where the psychological contract had been a motivating factor a sense of injustice can often lead to the zeal and enthusiasm and perseverance being replaced by a reduction in effort for the company.
The psychological contract is the belief of an individual of the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between the focal person and another party, that some form of promise has been made and that the terms and conditions of the agreement have been accepted by both parties (Robinson and Rousseau, 1994). The employee may not even be aware of the terms of the psychological contract but they still affect behaviour. In fact, employees should receive a written statement of terms and conditions confirming the agreement within a certain time period of starting the job (Stone, 1998). It is better to have it in writing. Having an agreement in writing gives a sense of safety and encouragement.
Some details of pay and conditions that might once have been covered by an employment contract are now covered by statute and European law. The EU Working Time Directive tells us about hours of work, rest and breaks and so on. These written forms act as a anchor for both employees and many employers. They are something both parties can constantly refer back to in any dispute.
The informal, unwritten understanding between employer and employee is the agreement the employees think they have in terms of what they will contribute and what is expected of them. It is a series of mutual expectations and satisfaction of needs arising from the relationship. It covers a range of rights and privileges, duties and obligations which although they have not been formalised exert an influence over the people's behaviour (Schein, 1988, Mullins, 1999). In recent years certain trends have changed the careers landscape for the worse. The contract many employees thought they had with their employers turned out to be worth less than the paper it wasn't written on. They changed the employment relationship and the existing or old psychological contract.
The old psychological contract was concerned with a long-term relationship based on trust and respect. The employee offered loyalty, conformity, commitment and trust in return for security of employment, good prospects, training and development with a certain amount of flexibility. The new contract is imposed rather than agreed, transactional rather than relational, short-term rather than long-term. It involves longer hours, more skills, tolerance of changes, more respnsibility having to be offered for high pay for some, rewards for good performance and a job (Arnold, Cooper and Robinson, 1998).
Many employees feel their psychological contract has been violated. The violations most commonly concern training and development, pay and benefits, and opportunities for promotion (Robinson and Rouseau, 1994). The frequency of complaints of psychological contract violations has led to psychologists researching the 'violation process'. The violations were neither considered to be the employer's fault nor intended and did not affect the employee's loyalty. It is of course open to interpretation. The psychological contract may be in danger of over use. The violation of a psychological contract implies a broken promise. A business is not an individual person and cannot make a psychological contract that is considered to exist only in the mind of the employee. (Arnold, Cooper and Robinson, 1998). A written agreement is something to which both parties can refer back. Seeing it, both parties can see if the promises are being fulfilled.
The psychological contract is the belief of an individual of the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between the focal person and another party, that some form of promise has been made and that the terms and conditions of the agreement have been accepted by both parties (Robinson and Rousseau, 1994). The employee may not even be aware of the terms of the psychological contract but they still affect behaviour. In fact, employees should receive a written statement of terms and conditions confirming the agreement within a certain time period of starting the job (Stone, 1998). It is better to have it in writing. Having an agreement in writing gives a sense of safety and encouragement.
Some details of pay and conditions that might once have been covered by an employment contract are now covered by statute and European law. The EU Working Time Directive tells us about hours of work, rest and breaks and so on. These written forms act as a anchor for both employees and many employers. They are something both parties can constantly refer back to in any dispute.
The informal, unwritten understanding between employer and employee is the agreement the employees think they have in terms of what they will contribute and what is expected of them. It is a series of mutual expectations and satisfaction of needs arising from the relationship. It covers a range of rights and privileges, duties and obligations which although they have not been formalised exert an influence over the people's behaviour (Schein, 1988, Mullins, 1999). In recent years certain trends have changed the careers landscape for the worse. The contract many employees thought they had with their employers turned out to be worth less than the paper it wasn't written on. They changed the employment relationship and the existing or old psychological contract.
The old psychological contract was concerned with a long-term relationship based on trust and respect. The employee offered loyalty, conformity, commitment and trust in return for security of employment, good prospects, training and development with a certain amount of flexibility. The new contract is imposed rather than agreed, transactional rather than relational, short-term rather than long-term. It involves longer hours, more skills, tolerance of changes, more respnsibility having to be offered for high pay for some, rewards for good performance and a job (Arnold, Cooper and Robinson, 1998).
Many employees feel their psychological contract has been violated. The violations most commonly concern training and development, pay and benefits, and opportunities for promotion (Robinson and Rouseau, 1994). The frequency of complaints of psychological contract violations has led to psychologists researching the 'violation process'. The violations were neither considered to be the employer's fault nor intended and did not affect the employee's loyalty. It is of course open to interpretation. The psychological contract may be in danger of over use. The violation of a psychological contract implies a broken promise. A business is not an individual person and cannot make a psychological contract that is considered to exist only in the mind of the employee. (Arnold, Cooper and Robinson, 1998). A written agreement is something to which both parties can refer back. Seeing it, both parties can see if the promises are being fulfilled.
Monday, 19 January 2009
Staying Close to The Customer
Everyone has a vocation or calling of some kind. The trades and professions are educated and trained in their particular careers to meet customer and market demand efficiently and effectively, as also those in public service are trained to administer to people, represent them and act on their behalf. There is a social contract. Everyone has to learn something to start with one way or another. There is a change process. It involves leaving society or the community for awhile. If they are socialised on return and in solidarity with the people they can sympathetise with them and understand them by sharing their uncertainty and limitations. Asymmetric information is always with us. Staying close to the customer to use the words of Peters and Waterman is a form of continuous marketing research providing the data and information necessary for continual innovation in both goods and services.
There are old and new forms of practice and process as well as products. Old ways tried and tested, reliable and trusted may not need to be replaced but occasionally old ideas and practices have to give way to new ideas and practices. They way business is done today is totally different to the way it was done fifty years ago and in fifty years time it will be totally different again.
There are old and new forms of practice and process as well as products. Old ways tried and tested, reliable and trusted may not need to be replaced but occasionally old ideas and practices have to give way to new ideas and practices. They way business is done today is totally different to the way it was done fifty years ago and in fifty years time it will be totally different again.
Friday, 16 January 2009
Being Responsive To Change
Management of the utmost importance to the effective operation of any business in both the public or private sectors. The quality of management is a very important factor. Continual professional development of managers is therefore necessary for sustaining business success.
The open model of managerial behaviour and development constructed by Mullins and Aldrich uses basic theories for its structure and situational demands for its adaption. It involves both theoretical and practical past knowledge and experience combined. It is a general theory that conceptualises the individual manager of any business negotiating the gamut of management variables where other specific models had little relevance. They follow Drucker in distinguishing management efficiency, that is the inputs and doing things right from managerial effectiveness or the outputs and doing the right things and Mintzberg on the three way measurement of effectiveness into formal, informal and self-assessment. It needs effective feedback of which there are two basic kinds: intrinsic and augmented. Feedback is usually associated with measurement but is still part of management development.
Management development should be part of a continuous process within a management development policy which reviews individual performance and career progression. On the job learning and off the job training provide a balance of theory and practice in management development courses. Action learning is an increasingly popular approach developed by Revans and is a combination of 'know how' and 'know that' based on 'programmed knowledge' and 'questioning insight' (L=P+Q). The emphasis is on learning by doing and is learner driven. It is designed to help with management problems. Senge suggests personal mastery, shared vision, team learning, mental models and systems thinking are a good foundation for workplace learning.
Self assessment will help determine suitability for higher positions and in becoming 'one's own person'. Even so, if opportunities for development and potential fulfilment have been reserved for the elites in management, the framework for the workforce in the UK was very limited and restricted like nowhere else in the industrialised West. Bratton and Gold tell us that Taylorist-Fordist approaches to control, deskilling and job design, in order to reduce costs, are still prevelant. The machine metaphor has been said to provide a view of reality. Attitudes, feelings and personal development have little importance. There is also the implication that learning and training may become subservient to cause and effect accounting procedures. A failure to educate and train a workforce results in poor economic performance and an inability to compete in world markets. The training and education programmes provided against this background have not been without their critics but continue to be a part of the training infrastructure.
Transformational leadership is the kind of leadership most associated with human resource development strategy, culture and employee commitment. The four components are charisma, inspiration, individualised consideration and intellectual stimulation. It is also a key variable in management development. Mintzberg provides an alternative to the top-down view by reconciling the emergent learning of employees creating knowledge from information flows and contact with the process, customers and suppliers with the deliberate control of management. Management can use the tension between emergent and deliberate strategy formulation to craft strategy. Emergent learning and deliberate planning need to be integrated in the thinking of managers.
Management development can be seen as renewal. Managers with tired and stressed minds and methods will not be able to compete effectively. Weak and failing businesses need fresh inputs of new and refreshing ideas from managers, employees and leading writers' articles, new skills and innovative techniques across many departments to continually transform themselves and keep a competitive edge and respond to change.
The open model of managerial behaviour and development constructed by Mullins and Aldrich uses basic theories for its structure and situational demands for its adaption. It involves both theoretical and practical past knowledge and experience combined. It is a general theory that conceptualises the individual manager of any business negotiating the gamut of management variables where other specific models had little relevance. They follow Drucker in distinguishing management efficiency, that is the inputs and doing things right from managerial effectiveness or the outputs and doing the right things and Mintzberg on the three way measurement of effectiveness into formal, informal and self-assessment. It needs effective feedback of which there are two basic kinds: intrinsic and augmented. Feedback is usually associated with measurement but is still part of management development.
Management development should be part of a continuous process within a management development policy which reviews individual performance and career progression. On the job learning and off the job training provide a balance of theory and practice in management development courses. Action learning is an increasingly popular approach developed by Revans and is a combination of 'know how' and 'know that' based on 'programmed knowledge' and 'questioning insight' (L=P+Q). The emphasis is on learning by doing and is learner driven. It is designed to help with management problems. Senge suggests personal mastery, shared vision, team learning, mental models and systems thinking are a good foundation for workplace learning.
Self assessment will help determine suitability for higher positions and in becoming 'one's own person'. Even so, if opportunities for development and potential fulfilment have been reserved for the elites in management, the framework for the workforce in the UK was very limited and restricted like nowhere else in the industrialised West. Bratton and Gold tell us that Taylorist-Fordist approaches to control, deskilling and job design, in order to reduce costs, are still prevelant. The machine metaphor has been said to provide a view of reality. Attitudes, feelings and personal development have little importance. There is also the implication that learning and training may become subservient to cause and effect accounting procedures. A failure to educate and train a workforce results in poor economic performance and an inability to compete in world markets. The training and education programmes provided against this background have not been without their critics but continue to be a part of the training infrastructure.
Transformational leadership is the kind of leadership most associated with human resource development strategy, culture and employee commitment. The four components are charisma, inspiration, individualised consideration and intellectual stimulation. It is also a key variable in management development. Mintzberg provides an alternative to the top-down view by reconciling the emergent learning of employees creating knowledge from information flows and contact with the process, customers and suppliers with the deliberate control of management. Management can use the tension between emergent and deliberate strategy formulation to craft strategy. Emergent learning and deliberate planning need to be integrated in the thinking of managers.
Management development can be seen as renewal. Managers with tired and stressed minds and methods will not be able to compete effectively. Weak and failing businesses need fresh inputs of new and refreshing ideas from managers, employees and leading writers' articles, new skills and innovative techniques across many departments to continually transform themselves and keep a competitive edge and respond to change.
Thursday, 15 January 2009
Communicate Effectively - Motivate!
People at a party have to listen attentively to another person speaking if they want to hear and understand what they are trying to communicate if lots of other people are speaking at the same time. Selective attention means we attend to certain stimuli while blocking out others. We all have a threshold at which we detect signals determined by stimulus variables. It is the minimum level of stimulus required for us to pay attention. These thresholds depend on many factors including our own motivation and our level and state of arousal. Effective listening firstly requires hearing, and also understanding and remembering.
A supportive climate is one of the most important factors in communication and creating the right psychological atmosphere can help break down defensiveness. Destroying defensiveness does not serve the purpose of learning. As Harrison says, it only increases the anxiety that effective systems that help cope with the world will be lost. It is important to establish and build interpersonal trust.
Communication in social interaction is enhanced by confirmation. Communication normally involves more than a mere exchange of information. Each person usually communicates something of how they perceive the relationship. Confirmation is a most satisfying interpersonal response we can hope to receive in communication. Tangential responses are very disconfirming, like shifting responses and changing the subject. Impersonal and impervious responses and irrelevant and incoherent responses serve no useful purpose in a workplace. The best responses are direct acknowledgement, expressions of positive feeling, agreement, clarification, and supportive gestures of any kind. Confirmation leads to the other person valuing themself more and disconfirmation has the opposite effect, leaving the other person feeling less valued. It may be that all of our responses to people will not be confirming. Occasionally we may want to reject communication from others. Even then we should always retain a confirmatory response style.
Long term planning and achieving objectives in the business context mean that the right climate for lasting relationships is important. The process of encouragment, motivation and affirmation should be ongoing. People have to keep listening to each other and building on the confidence they have already.
A supportive climate is one of the most important factors in communication and creating the right psychological atmosphere can help break down defensiveness. Destroying defensiveness does not serve the purpose of learning. As Harrison says, it only increases the anxiety that effective systems that help cope with the world will be lost. It is important to establish and build interpersonal trust.
Communication in social interaction is enhanced by confirmation. Communication normally involves more than a mere exchange of information. Each person usually communicates something of how they perceive the relationship. Confirmation is a most satisfying interpersonal response we can hope to receive in communication. Tangential responses are very disconfirming, like shifting responses and changing the subject. Impersonal and impervious responses and irrelevant and incoherent responses serve no useful purpose in a workplace. The best responses are direct acknowledgement, expressions of positive feeling, agreement, clarification, and supportive gestures of any kind. Confirmation leads to the other person valuing themself more and disconfirmation has the opposite effect, leaving the other person feeling less valued. It may be that all of our responses to people will not be confirming. Occasionally we may want to reject communication from others. Even then we should always retain a confirmatory response style.
Long term planning and achieving objectives in the business context mean that the right climate for lasting relationships is important. The process of encouragment, motivation and affirmation should be ongoing. People have to keep listening to each other and building on the confidence they have already.
Wednesday, 14 January 2009
Empathy And Listening
Empathy involves seeing and feeling things the way another person does, experiencing another person's perception. It is the most important element in accurate person perception. Perception of another determines whether or not we might want to communicate with that person. It can be difficult because person perception is a dynamic and changing process and the perceiver is part of the process. The other will react and be affected by our behaviour. We can work towards developing our sensitivity and responsiveness to others. Floyd suggested that empathy is a key factor in effective listening and communication and in healing conflicts and other problems. Accurate perception provides insights and helps with effective relationship building.
Empathic listening, according to Covey, involves seeking to understand the speaker. It may involve a paradigm shift, listening with the intention of understanding at a deep level rather than to be understood. Listening between the lines heightens sensitivity and awareness to the message the other person is trying to communicate. It means resonance, identification, experiencing some kind of reflection of the other person's emotions, a feeling into the other person. It is rewarding for the speaker and the listener too. It is also encouraging. The listener communicates caring and acceptance. It strengthens positive interpersonal relationships.
Establishing rapport with another person also depends on contextual factors like setting and environment. The questions who, why, where, when and how should be answered. Our communication with other people depends on our perception of them, our history, their emotional state. Marketing in different cultures requires a cultural empathy to come to terms with the differences and to establish a market position. Feedback is an important part of the communication process. It will help decide whether our perceptions are right or wrong.
Before any improvement can be made in personal perception we must admit that our perception may be inaccurate and subjective. Accurate perception enhances communication in both long-term and short-term relationships. It also applies to situations like interviews, reviewed by McComb and Jablin, where person perception is important. The employee should perceive the employer as agreeable, helpful and constructive and they should both perceive work performance in the same way. Perceiving our own behavioural responses to situations in another person is seen as an expression of stability.
Empathic listening is not critical. It is a willingness to be accepting, permissive and understanding. It is sometimes called reflective response. Pearce and Newton suggest empathy is the basic mode of significant communication between adults. Such sensitivity is required in long and short-term relationships.
Empathic listening, according to Covey, involves seeking to understand the speaker. It may involve a paradigm shift, listening with the intention of understanding at a deep level rather than to be understood. Listening between the lines heightens sensitivity and awareness to the message the other person is trying to communicate. It means resonance, identification, experiencing some kind of reflection of the other person's emotions, a feeling into the other person. It is rewarding for the speaker and the listener too. It is also encouraging. The listener communicates caring and acceptance. It strengthens positive interpersonal relationships.
Establishing rapport with another person also depends on contextual factors like setting and environment. The questions who, why, where, when and how should be answered. Our communication with other people depends on our perception of them, our history, their emotional state. Marketing in different cultures requires a cultural empathy to come to terms with the differences and to establish a market position. Feedback is an important part of the communication process. It will help decide whether our perceptions are right or wrong.
Before any improvement can be made in personal perception we must admit that our perception may be inaccurate and subjective. Accurate perception enhances communication in both long-term and short-term relationships. It also applies to situations like interviews, reviewed by McComb and Jablin, where person perception is important. The employee should perceive the employer as agreeable, helpful and constructive and they should both perceive work performance in the same way. Perceiving our own behavioural responses to situations in another person is seen as an expression of stability.
Empathic listening is not critical. It is a willingness to be accepting, permissive and understanding. It is sometimes called reflective response. Pearce and Newton suggest empathy is the basic mode of significant communication between adults. Such sensitivity is required in long and short-term relationships.
Tuesday, 13 January 2009
Playing God
Management style can affect employee motivation so it is important to get things right. There are important organisational and structural variables to consider. Communications relationships, division of labour, functional specialisms, scalar chain, unified and functional authority relationships, span and control in flat or tall structures, co-ordination, and delegation are some of them. Weber called them bureaucratic structures. Mintzberg describes them as machine bureaucracies. Authority is usually divided into line, staff and function. Work study and work measurement can help determine the nature of the tasks and workflows and the degree of standardisation and routine in repetitive work.
Many of the more recent management style theories tend to aim for a building up of trust, respect, belonging and relationships leading to consultative and participative styles. The alternatives are close control, supervision and compliance methods. The reasons for this may found in a deep dissatisfaction with the work experience or a natural dislike for work and an avoidance of it among some employees. A balance has to be struck somewhere and Blake and Mouton suggest it should be located between a relative concern of production and a relative concern for people.
Argyris' immaturity-maturity theory suggests that a formalised and bureaucratic approach gives rise to dependent, passive or subservient behaviour that can be classfied as immature. People treated in a immature manner will react in an immature manner. Routine and standardised work in such an environment will use only a small proportion of a person capabilities. Once used to a restricted work situation the person would become like an automaton in a static existence. This approach also assumes that a person is immature and cannot be trusted. If a person's individual maturity is to be developed a suitable management style must be adopted. The individual person can then be enabled to develop their competence, capacity and experience.
Managers who succeed in adopting the right style will make an impression on employees and gain a good reputation for themselves in the workplace, and in the local community, for themselves and the company. They would be setting a good example and become a role model for future managers.
Many of the more recent management style theories tend to aim for a building up of trust, respect, belonging and relationships leading to consultative and participative styles. The alternatives are close control, supervision and compliance methods. The reasons for this may found in a deep dissatisfaction with the work experience or a natural dislike for work and an avoidance of it among some employees. A balance has to be struck somewhere and Blake and Mouton suggest it should be located between a relative concern of production and a relative concern for people.
Argyris' immaturity-maturity theory suggests that a formalised and bureaucratic approach gives rise to dependent, passive or subservient behaviour that can be classfied as immature. People treated in a immature manner will react in an immature manner. Routine and standardised work in such an environment will use only a small proportion of a person capabilities. Once used to a restricted work situation the person would become like an automaton in a static existence. This approach also assumes that a person is immature and cannot be trusted. If a person's individual maturity is to be developed a suitable management style must be adopted. The individual person can then be enabled to develop their competence, capacity and experience.
Managers who succeed in adopting the right style will make an impression on employees and gain a good reputation for themselves in the workplace, and in the local community, for themselves and the company. They would be setting a good example and become a role model for future managers.
Monday, 12 January 2009
At Various Times In The Past
'At various times in the past and in various different ways', Heb. 1:1
'Increase and multily fill the world and subdue it', Gen. 1:28
'By the sweat of your brow shall you eat your bread', Gen. 3:19
When there is a realistic call for social and economic change those changes must come. There have already been industrial and agrarian revolutions, revolutionary changes that meant great social upheavals and difficult social problems when things were happening that were repugnant in the extreme. In cottage industry and factories and mines, in town and country, the evils of capitalism and communism confronted philosophers, economists and politicians. There is a great history of ground breaking ideas and they often have a universality of application. The ideas once established by the prime movers are developed by those that follow. Without going into any great details a list of economic ideas follows.
Economic theories and ideas go back to antiquity. One of the earliest is Henry of Ghent in the early 13th century. He lived, studied and worked in the region of Tournai and Paris and lectured and wrote on the perennial problems of philosophy and religion. Henry of Langenstein (b. 1325) was very influential and wrote a very important work on the political and economic views of his times published in a work by Gerson in 15th century. Another 14th century economist, also a mathematician and physicist, was Nicole Oresme of Normandy. He is best known as an economist and one of the founders of modern science. His economic views are writtem in Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics, Commentaries on the Politics and Economics of Aristotle and a treatise on coins. They show him to be a precursor of the modern science of political economy. Bishop St. Antoninus was a friend of the poor. He also wrote famously on moral theology and divine providence. St Bernadine of Siena wrote against usury and the economic evils of his day.
The Physiocrats (nature, rule) were the economists of 17th century and they were called 'economistes' by their contemporaries. Francois Quesnay was the leading exponent. Mirabeau was his first disciple. The term 'laissez-faire' comes from a physiocrat called Legendre. The term was also used by Bois-Guillebont in a response to Colbert in addressing a gathering of merchants on the subject of the needs of industry. They were apropos to a need for a reaction in the 17th century. Gournay has been called the co-founder of physiocracy. The phrase 'laissez faire et laissez passer' comes from him. Physiocracy provides for the rule of natural law. Quesnay borrowed the mathematical method for his 'tableau economique' from Descartes and emphasised the difference between the natural and positive orders, the God-made and the man-made. He also emphasised the importance of agriculture as being the most productive part of the economy. His belief in individual property rights and views on government interference brought him into conflict with the social contract ideas of Rousseau though the views of the Physiocrats were broadly acceptable to the Revolutionaries. Other influences on the Physoctrats were David Hume and his dislike of the balance of trade theory and Castillon and his recognition of the importance of agriculture and his development of the doctrine of net product. They were particularly influential in France but also found some support in Switzerland and Baden, Germany. The term 'physiocrat' was not used until the 19th century.
The sources of economic wealth as described by Adam Smith (1723-1790) the Scottish economist and moral philosopher, were the division of labour and free markets. We were helped to understand human economic behaviour by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) and our contemporary Gary Becker who explained human behaviour in the family, workplace and the markets as a response to scarcity in order to maximise utility subject to the constraints of resources and technology. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) and Harold Hotelling (1895-1923) had different responses to the problem of running out of resources. Hotelling suggested the limits to economic growth can be overcome through the expansion of production and population. Malthus was more concerned with exhaustible natural resources and population control. Hotelling said that as the prices of natural resources rises there is a decrease in the use of those resources and an increase in use of substitutes. Since then Julian Simon has gone further and challenged that suggesting that people are the ultimate resource and population growth lessens pressure on natural resources. A growing population provides a larger number of intelligent people who are better qualified and can work out better ways of using scarce resources.
Social reformers have contributed a lot to social and economic ideas. Von Kettler, who became a Catholic Bishop, is one whose fight against economic and social evils led to the creation of a number of labour unions and worker co-operatives in Germany in the 19th century. His ideas can be found in his writings including the work on the labour question and Christianity. Karl Barth was another great German social reformer.
The people who have helped most significantly in studying the problem of economic growth are Jospeh Schumpeter (1883-1950), Robert Solow and Paul Romer. These theories are all to do with innovation and successful new ideas. Schumpeter taught that progress comes through the development and diffusion of new technologies by profit seeking entrepreneurs but that it takes place in a process of 'creative destruction'. Robert Solow who was a student of Schumpeter put forward the neo-classical theory that population and technological growth influence economic growth with an important feature being the productivity function. Savings, investment and economic growth respond to population and technological growth. Paul Romer says that competition among firms produces long term economic growth, new products and processes.
Davis Hume and Milton Friedman have given us theories of money and inflation. Hume observed that increases in the quantity of money causes an increase in prices. Friedman, a member of the Chicago School, said that persistent demand stimulation did not increase output, but caused inflation. His policy of monetarism, the tightening of money supply, became very popular as a result.
Many economists past and present have advanced theories for understanding the business cycle. One of those who stands out above the others is Robert E Lucas. He challenged Keynes theory of fluctuations and in reply put forward two principles: people make rational decisions based on rational expectations; and markets reconcile individual decisions by balancing supply and demand, even in recessions.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) developed the doctrine of comparative advantage from studying the work of Adam Smith. The theory that countries have a comparative advantage that can be used to stimulate trade with trade partners and other countries or blocs to the benfit of both is the theory on which modern international trade theory is based.
Other names that could be mentioned include Le Play (1806-1882) a French economist who eventually came into conflict with Rousseau's state intervention and social contract theories. Jean Bodin (1530-1596) was more a jurist than an economist and countered the Machiavellian influence in moral and political science but who believed in the necessity of free trade. Charles Stanton Devas (1828-1906) added his theories of political economy and family economics and wrote a textbook on political economy which became a standard work.
The list is not exhaustive. There are many more in history and many more even now still actively affecting our lives and developing new and existing theories to meet the social and economic problems we face today. Economists often disagree and there is often consensus. It is important that theories are tested and discussed and people put forward their thoughts and concerns. The people who disagree with an economic theory or policy may be more important than those who put it forward.
'Increase and multily fill the world and subdue it', Gen. 1:28
'By the sweat of your brow shall you eat your bread', Gen. 3:19
When there is a realistic call for social and economic change those changes must come. There have already been industrial and agrarian revolutions, revolutionary changes that meant great social upheavals and difficult social problems when things were happening that were repugnant in the extreme. In cottage industry and factories and mines, in town and country, the evils of capitalism and communism confronted philosophers, economists and politicians. There is a great history of ground breaking ideas and they often have a universality of application. The ideas once established by the prime movers are developed by those that follow. Without going into any great details a list of economic ideas follows.
Economic theories and ideas go back to antiquity. One of the earliest is Henry of Ghent in the early 13th century. He lived, studied and worked in the region of Tournai and Paris and lectured and wrote on the perennial problems of philosophy and religion. Henry of Langenstein (b. 1325) was very influential and wrote a very important work on the political and economic views of his times published in a work by Gerson in 15th century. Another 14th century economist, also a mathematician and physicist, was Nicole Oresme of Normandy. He is best known as an economist and one of the founders of modern science. His economic views are writtem in Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics, Commentaries on the Politics and Economics of Aristotle and a treatise on coins. They show him to be a precursor of the modern science of political economy. Bishop St. Antoninus was a friend of the poor. He also wrote famously on moral theology and divine providence. St Bernadine of Siena wrote against usury and the economic evils of his day.
The Physiocrats (nature, rule) were the economists of 17th century and they were called 'economistes' by their contemporaries. Francois Quesnay was the leading exponent. Mirabeau was his first disciple. The term 'laissez-faire' comes from a physiocrat called Legendre. The term was also used by Bois-Guillebont in a response to Colbert in addressing a gathering of merchants on the subject of the needs of industry. They were apropos to a need for a reaction in the 17th century. Gournay has been called the co-founder of physiocracy. The phrase 'laissez faire et laissez passer' comes from him. Physiocracy provides for the rule of natural law. Quesnay borrowed the mathematical method for his 'tableau economique' from Descartes and emphasised the difference between the natural and positive orders, the God-made and the man-made. He also emphasised the importance of agriculture as being the most productive part of the economy. His belief in individual property rights and views on government interference brought him into conflict with the social contract ideas of Rousseau though the views of the Physiocrats were broadly acceptable to the Revolutionaries. Other influences on the Physoctrats were David Hume and his dislike of the balance of trade theory and Castillon and his recognition of the importance of agriculture and his development of the doctrine of net product. They were particularly influential in France but also found some support in Switzerland and Baden, Germany. The term 'physiocrat' was not used until the 19th century.
The sources of economic wealth as described by Adam Smith (1723-1790) the Scottish economist and moral philosopher, were the division of labour and free markets. We were helped to understand human economic behaviour by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) and our contemporary Gary Becker who explained human behaviour in the family, workplace and the markets as a response to scarcity in order to maximise utility subject to the constraints of resources and technology. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) and Harold Hotelling (1895-1923) had different responses to the problem of running out of resources. Hotelling suggested the limits to economic growth can be overcome through the expansion of production and population. Malthus was more concerned with exhaustible natural resources and population control. Hotelling said that as the prices of natural resources rises there is a decrease in the use of those resources and an increase in use of substitutes. Since then Julian Simon has gone further and challenged that suggesting that people are the ultimate resource and population growth lessens pressure on natural resources. A growing population provides a larger number of intelligent people who are better qualified and can work out better ways of using scarce resources.
Social reformers have contributed a lot to social and economic ideas. Von Kettler, who became a Catholic Bishop, is one whose fight against economic and social evils led to the creation of a number of labour unions and worker co-operatives in Germany in the 19th century. His ideas can be found in his writings including the work on the labour question and Christianity. Karl Barth was another great German social reformer.
The people who have helped most significantly in studying the problem of economic growth are Jospeh Schumpeter (1883-1950), Robert Solow and Paul Romer. These theories are all to do with innovation and successful new ideas. Schumpeter taught that progress comes through the development and diffusion of new technologies by profit seeking entrepreneurs but that it takes place in a process of 'creative destruction'. Robert Solow who was a student of Schumpeter put forward the neo-classical theory that population and technological growth influence economic growth with an important feature being the productivity function. Savings, investment and economic growth respond to population and technological growth. Paul Romer says that competition among firms produces long term economic growth, new products and processes.
Davis Hume and Milton Friedman have given us theories of money and inflation. Hume observed that increases in the quantity of money causes an increase in prices. Friedman, a member of the Chicago School, said that persistent demand stimulation did not increase output, but caused inflation. His policy of monetarism, the tightening of money supply, became very popular as a result.
Many economists past and present have advanced theories for understanding the business cycle. One of those who stands out above the others is Robert E Lucas. He challenged Keynes theory of fluctuations and in reply put forward two principles: people make rational decisions based on rational expectations; and markets reconcile individual decisions by balancing supply and demand, even in recessions.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) developed the doctrine of comparative advantage from studying the work of Adam Smith. The theory that countries have a comparative advantage that can be used to stimulate trade with trade partners and other countries or blocs to the benfit of both is the theory on which modern international trade theory is based.
Other names that could be mentioned include Le Play (1806-1882) a French economist who eventually came into conflict with Rousseau's state intervention and social contract theories. Jean Bodin (1530-1596) was more a jurist than an economist and countered the Machiavellian influence in moral and political science but who believed in the necessity of free trade. Charles Stanton Devas (1828-1906) added his theories of political economy and family economics and wrote a textbook on political economy which became a standard work.
The list is not exhaustive. There are many more in history and many more even now still actively affecting our lives and developing new and existing theories to meet the social and economic problems we face today. Economists often disagree and there is often consensus. It is important that theories are tested and discussed and people put forward their thoughts and concerns. The people who disagree with an economic theory or policy may be more important than those who put it forward.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)